2011年2月11日
时间日期函数,函数库为time.h
在时间日期函数里,主要用到的结构有以下几个:
总时间日期贮存结构tm
┌──────────────────────┐
│struct tm │
│{ │
│ int tm_sec; /*秒,0-59*/ │
│ int tm_min; /*分,0-59*/ │
│ int tm_hour; /*时,0-23*/ │
│ int tm_mday; /*天数,1-31*/ │
│ int tm_mon; /*月数,0-11*/ │
│ int tm_year; /*自1900的年数*/ │
│ int tm_wday; /*自星期日的天数0-6*/ │
│ int tm_yday; /*自1月1日起的天数,0-365*/ │
│ int tm_isdst; /*是否采用夏时制,采用为正数*/│
│} │
└──────────────────────┘
日期贮存结构date
┌───────────────┐
│struct date │
│{ │
│ int da_year; /*自1900的年数*/│
│ char da_day; /*天数*/ │
│ char da_mon; /*月数 1=Jan*/ │
│} │
└───────────────┘
时间贮存结构time
┌────────────────┐
│struct time │
│{ │
│ unsigned char ti_min; /*分钟*/│
│ unsigned char ti_hour; /*小时*/│
│ unsigned char ti_hund; │
│ unsigned char ti_sec; /*秒*/ │
│} │
└────────────────┘
char *ctime(long *clock)
本函数把clock所指的时间(如由函数time返回的时间)转换成下列格式的
字符串:Mon Nov 21 11:31:54 1983\n\0
char *asctime(struct tm *tm)
本函数把指定的tm结构类的时间转换成下列格式的字符串:
Mon Nov 21 11:31:54 1983\n\0
double difftime(time_t time2,time_t time1)
计算结构time2和time1之间的时间差距(以秒为单位)
struct tm *gmtime(long *clock)本函数把clock所指的时间(如由函数time返回的时间)
转换成格林威治时间,并以tm结构形式返回
struct tm *localtime(long *clock)本函数把clock所指的时间(如函数time返回的时间)
转换成当地标准时间,并以tm结构形式返回
void tzset()本函数提供了对UNIX操作系统的兼容性
long dostounix(struct date *dateptr,struct time *timeptr)
本函数将dateptr所指的日期,timeptr所指的时间转换成UNIX格式,并返回
自格林威治时间1970年1月1日凌晨起到现在的秒数
void unixtodos(long utime,struct date *dateptr,struct time *timeptr)
本函数将自格林威治时间1970年1月1日凌晨起到现在的秒数utime转换成
DOS格式并保存于用户所指的结构dateptr和timeptr中
void getdate(struct date *dateblk)本函数将计算机内的日期写入结构dateblk
中以供用户使用
void setdate(struct date *dateblk)本函数将计算机内的日期改成
由结构dateblk所指定的日期
void gettime(struct time *timep)本函数将计算机内的时间写入结构timep中,
以供用户使用
void settime(struct time *timep)本函数将计算机内的时间改为
由结构timep所指的时间
long time(long *tloc)本函数给出自格林威治时间1970年1月1日凌晨至现在所经
过的秒数,并将该值存于tloc所指的单元中.
int stime(long *tp)本函数将tp所指的时间(例如由time所返回的时间)
写入计算机中.
posted @
2011-02-11 10:00 Mr.Johnson 阅读(417) |
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2010年12月12日
Table of Contents
Many C++ programs use common data structures like stacks, queues and lists. A
program may require a queue of customers and a queue of messages. One could
easily implement a queue of customers, then take the existing code and implement
a queue of messages. The program grows, and now there is a need for a queue of
orders. So just take the queue of messages and convert that to a queue of orders
(Copy, paste, find, replace????). Need to make some changes to the queue
implementation? Not a very easy task, since the code has been duplicated in many
places. Re-inventing source code is not an intelligent approach in an object
oriented environment which encourages re-usability. It seems to make more sense
to implement a queue that can contain any arbitrary type rather than duplicating
code. How does one do that? The answer is to use type parameterization, more
commonly referred to as templates.
C++ templates allow one to implement a generic Queue<T> template that
has a type parameter T. T can be replaced with actual types, for example,
Queue<Customers>, and C++ will generate the class Queue<Customers>.
Changing the implementation of the Queue becomes relatively simple. Once the
changes are implemented in the template Queue<T>, they are immediately
reflected in the classes Queue<Customers>, Queue<Messages>, and
Queue<Orders>.
Templates are very useful when implementing generic constructs like vectors,
stacks, lists, queues which can be used with any arbitrary type. C++ templates
provide a way to re-use source code as opposed to inheritance and composition
which provide a way to re-use object code.
C++ provides two kinds of templates: class templates and function templates.
Use function templates to write generic functions that can be used with
arbitrary types. For example, one can write searching and sorting routines which
can be used with any arbitrary type. The Standard Template Library generic
algorithms have been implemented as function templates, and the containers have
been implemented as class templates.
A class template definition looks like a regular class definition, except it
is prefixed by the keyword template. For example, here is the definition of a
class template for a Stack.
template <class T>
class Stack
{
public:
Stack(int = 10) ;
~Stack() { delete [] stackPtr ; }
int push(const T&);
int pop(T&) ;
int isEmpty()const { return top == -1 ; }
int isFull() const { return top == size - 1 ; }
private:
int size ; // number of elements on Stack.
int top ;
T* stackPtr ;
} ;
T is a type parameter and it can be any type. For example,
Stack<Token>, where Token is a user defined class. T does not have to be a
class type as implied by the keyword class. For example, Stack<int> and
Stack<Message*> are valid instantiations, even though int and Message* are
not "classes".
Implementing template member functions is somewhat different compared to the
regular class member functions. The declarations and definitions of the class
template member functions should all be in the same header file. The
declarations and definitions need to be in the same header file. Consider the
following.
//B.H
template <class t>
class b
{
public:
b() ;
~b() ;
} ;
|
// B.CPP
#include "B.H"
template <class t>
b<t>::b()
{
}
template <class t>
b<t>::~b()
{
}
|
//MAIN.CPP
#include "B.H"
void main()
{
b<int> bi ;
b <float> bf ;
}
|
When compiling B.cpp, the compiler has both the declarations and the
definitions available. At this point the compiler does not need to generate any
definitions for template classes, since there are no instantiations. When the
compiler compiles main.cpp, there are two instantiations: template class
B<int> and B<float>. At this point the compiler has the declarations
but no definitions!
While implementing class template member functions, the definitions are
prefixed by the keyword template. Here is the complete implementation of class
template Stack:
//stack.h
#pragma once
template <class T>
class Stack
{
public:
Stack(int = 10) ;
~Stack() { delete [] stackPtr ; }
int push(const T&);
int pop(T&) ; // pop an element off the stack
int isEmpty()const { return top == -1 ; }
int isFull() const { return top == size - 1 ; }
private:
int size ; // Number of elements on Stack
int top ;
T* stackPtr ;
} ;
//constructor with the default size 10
template <class T>
Stack<T>::Stack(int s)
{
size = s > 0 && s < 1000 ? s : 10 ;
top = -1 ; // initialize stack
stackPtr = new T[size] ;
}
// push an element onto the Stack
template <class T>
int Stack<T>::push(const T& item)
{
if (!isFull())
{
stackPtr[++top] = item ;
return 1 ; // push successful
}
return 0 ; // push unsuccessful
}
// pop an element off the Stack
template <class T>
int Stack<T>::pop(T& popValue)
{
if (!isEmpty())
{
popValue = stackPtr[top--] ;
return 1 ; // pop successful
}
return 0 ; // pop unsuccessful
}
Using a class template is easy. Create the required classes by plugging in
the actual type for the type parameters. This process is commonly known as
"Instantiating a class". Here is a sample driver class that uses the Stack class
template.
#include <iostream>
#include "stack.h"
using namespace std ;
void main()
{
typedef Stack<float> FloatStack ;
typedef Stack<int> IntStack ;
FloatStack fs(5) ;
float f = 1.1 ;
cout << "Pushing elements onto fs" << endl ;
while (fs.push(f))
{
cout << f << ' ' ;
f += 1.1 ;
}
cout << endl << "Stack Full." << endl
<< endl << "Popping elements from fs" << endl ;
while (fs.pop(f))
cout << f << ' ' ;
cout << endl << "Stack Empty" << endl ;
cout << endl ;
IntStack is ;
int i = 1.1 ;
cout << "Pushing elements onto is" << endl ;
while (is.push(i))
{
cout << i << ' ' ;
i += 1 ;
}
cout << endl << "Stack Full" << endl
<< endl << "Popping elements from is" << endl ;
while (is.pop(i))
cout << i << ' ' ;
cout << endl << "Stack Empty" << endl ;
}
Program Output
Pushing elements onto fs
1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5
Stack Full.
Popping elements from fs
5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1
Stack Empty
Pushing elements onto is
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stack Full
Popping elements from is
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Stack Empty
In the above example we defined a class template Stack. In the driver program
we instantiated a Stack of float (FloatStack) and a Stack of int(IntStack). Once
the template classes are instantiated you can instantiate objects of that type
(for example, fs and is.)
A good programming practice is using typedef while instantiating template
classes. Then throughout the program, one can use the typedef name. There are
two advantages:
- typedef's are very useful when "templates of templates" come into
usage. For example, when instantiating an STL vector of int's, you could use:
typedef vector<int, allocator<int> > INTVECTOR ;
- If the template definition changes, simply change the typedef definition.
For example, currently the definition of template class vector requires a second
parameter.
typedef vector<int, allocator<int> > INTVECTOR ;
INTVECTOR vi1 ;
In a future version, the second parameter may not be required, for
example, typedef vector<int> INTVECTOR ;
INTVECTOR vi1 ;
Imagine how many changes would be required if there was no typedef!
To perform identical operations for each type of data compactly and
conveniently, use function templates. You can write a single function template
definition. Based on the argument types provided in calls to the function, the
compiler automatically instantiates separate object code functions to handle
each type of call appropriately. The STL algorithms are implemented as function
templates.
Function templates are implemented like regular functions, except they are
prefixed with the keyword template. Here is a sample with a function template.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
//max returns the maximum of the two elements
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}
Using function templates is very easy: just use them like regular functions.
When the compiler sees an instantiation of the function template, for example:
the call max(10, 15) in function main, the compiler generates a function
max(int, int). Similarly the compiler generates definitions for max(char, char)
and max(float, float) in this case.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
//max returns the maximum of the two elements
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}
void main()
{
cout << "max(10, 15) = " << max(10, 15) << endl ;
cout << "max('k', 's') = " << max('k', 's') << endl ;
cout << "max(10.1, 15.2) = " << max(10.1, 15.2) << endl ;
}
Program Output
max(10, 15) = 15
max('k', 's') = s
max(10.1, 15.2) = 15.2
When the compiler generates a class, function or static data members from a
template, it is referred to as template instantiation.
- A class generated from a class template is called a generated class.
- A function generated from a function template is called a generated
function.
- A static data member generated from a static data member template is called
a generated static data member.
The compiler generates a class, function or static data members from a
template when it sees an implicit instantiation or an explicit instantiation of
the template.
- Consider the following sample. This is an example of implicit instantiation
of a class template.
template <class T>
class Z
{
public:
Z() {} ;
~Z() {} ;
void f(){} ;
void g(){} ;
} ;
int main()
{
Z<int> zi ; //implicit instantiation generates class Z<int>
Z<float> zf ; //implicit instantiation generates class Z<float>
return 0 ;
}
- Consider the following sample. This sample uses the template class members
Z<T>::f() and Z<T>::g().
template <class T>
class Z
{
public:
Z() {} ;
~Z() {} ;
void f(){} ;
void g(){} ;
} ;
int main()
{
Z<int> zi ; //implicit instantiation generates class Z<int>
zi.f() ; //and generates function Z<int>::f()
Z<float> zf ; //implicit instantiation generates class Z<float>
zf.g() ; //and generates function Z<float>::g()
return 0 ;
}
This time in addition to the generating classes Z<int> and
Z<float>, with constructors and destructors, the compiler also generates
definitions for Z<int>::f() and Z<float>::g(). The compiler does not
generate definitions for functions, nonvirtual member functions, class or member
class that does not require instantiation. In this example, the compiler did not
generate any definitions for Z<int>::g() and Z<float>::f(), since
they were not required.
- Consider the following sample. This is an example of explicit instantiation
of a class template.
template <class T>
class Z
{
public:
Z() {} ;
~Z() {} ;
void f(){} ;
void g(){} ;
} ;
int main()
{
template class Z<int> ; //explicit instantiation of class Z<int>
template class Z<float> ; //explicit instantiation of
//class Z<float>
return 0 ;
}
- Consider the following sample. Will the compiler generate any classes in
this case? The answer is NO.
template <class T>
class Z
{
public:
Z() {} ;
~Z() {} ;
void f(){} ;
void g(){} ;
} ;
int main()
{
Z<int>* p_zi ; //instantiation of class Z<int> not required
Z<float>* p_zf ; //instantiation of class Z<float> not required
return 0 ;
}
This time the compiler does not generate any definitions! There is no need
for any definitions. It is similar to declaring a pointer to an undefined class
or struct.
- Consider the following sample. This is an example of implicit instantiation
of a function template.
//max returns the maximum of the two elements
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}
void main()
{
int I ;
I = max(10, 15) ; //implicit instantiation of max(int, int)
char c ;
c = max('k', 's') ; //implicit instantiation of max(char, char)
}
In this case the compiler generates functions max(int, int) and max(char,
char). The compiler generates definitions using the template function max.
- Consider the following sample. This is an example of explicit instantiation
of a function template.
template <class T>
void Test(T r_t)
{
}
int main()
{
//explicit instantiation of Test(int)
template void Test<int>(int) ;
return 0 ;
}
NOTE: Visual C++ 5.0 does not support this syntax currently. The
above sample causes compiler error C1001.
In this case the compiler would generate function Test(int). The compiler
generates the definition using the template function Test.
- If an instantiation of a class template is required, and the template
declared but not defined, the program is ill-formed. VC5.0 compiler generates
error C2079.
template <class T> class X ;
int main()
{
X<int> xi ; //error C2079: 'xi' uses undefined class 'X<int>'
return 0 ;
}
- Instantiating virtual member functions of a class template that does not
require instantiation is implementation defined. For example, in the following
sample, virtual function X<T>::Test() is not required, VC5.0 generates a
definition for X<T>::Test.
template <class T>
class X
{
public:
virtual void Test() {}
};
int main()
{
X<int> xi ; //implicit instantiation of X<int>
return 0 ;
}
In this case the compiler generates a definition for X<int>::Test, even
if it is not required.
In some cases it is possible to override the template-generated code by
providing special definitions for specific types. This is called template
specialization. The following example defines a template class specialization
for template class stream.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
template <class T>
class stream
{
public:
void f() { cout << "stream<T>::f()"<< endl ;}
} ;
template <>
class stream<char>
{
public:
void f() { cout << "stream<char>::f()"<< endl ;}
} ;
int main()
{
stream<int> si ;
stream<char> sc ;
si.f() ;
sc.f() ;
return 0 ;
}
Program Output
stream<T>::f()
stream<char>::f()
In the above example, stream<char> is used as the definition of streams
of chars; other streams will be handled by the template class generated from the
class template.
You may want to generate a specialization of the class for just one
parameter, for example
//base template class
template<typename T1, typename T2>
class X
{
} ;
//partial specialization
template<typename T1>
class X<T1, int>
{
} ; //C2989 here
int main()
{
// generates an instantiation from the base template
X<char, char> xcc ;
//generates an instantiation from the partial specialization
X<char, int> xii ;
return 0 ;
}
A partial specialization matches a given actual template argument list if the
template arguments of the partial specialization can be deduced from the actual
template argument list.
NOTE: Visual C++ 5.0 does not support template class partial
specialization. The above sample causes compiler error C2989: template class has
already been defined as a non-template class.
In some cases it is possible to override the template-generated code by
providing special definitions for specific types. This is called template
specialization. The following example demonstrates a situation where overriding
the template generated code would be necessary:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
//max returns the maximum of the two elements of type T, where T is a
//class or data type for which operator> is defined.
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}
int main()
{
cout << "max(10, 15) = " << max(10, 15) << endl ;
cout << "max('k', 's') = " << max('k', 's') << endl ;
cout << "max(10.1, 15.2) = " << max(10.1, 15.2) << endl ;
cout << "max(\"Aladdin\", \"Jasmine\") = " << max("Aladdin", "Jasmine") << endl ;
return 0 ;
}
Program Output
max(10, 15) = 15
max('k', 's') = s
max(10.1, 15.2) = 15.2
max("Aladdin", "Jasmine") = Aladdin
Not quite the expected results! Why did that happen? The function call
max("Aladdin", "Jasmine") causes the compiler to generate code for max(char*,
char*), which compares the addresses of the strings! To correct special cases
like these or to provide more efficient implementations for certain types, one
can use template specializations. The above example can be rewritten with
specialization as follows:
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std ;
//max returns the maximum of the two elements
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}
// Specialization of max for char*
template <>
char* max(char* a, char* b)
{
return strcmp(a, b) > 0 ? a : b ;
}
int main()
{
cout << "max(10, 15) = " << max(10, 15) << endl ;
cout << "max('k', 's') = " << max('k', 's') << endl ;
cout << "max(10.1, 15.2) = " << max(10.1, 15.2) << endl ;
cout << "max(\"Aladdin\", \"Jasmine\") = " << max("Aladdin", "Jasmine") << endl ;
return 0 ;
}
Program Output
max(10, 15) = 15
max('k', 's') = s
max(10.1, 15.2) = 15.2
max("Aladdin", "Jasmine") = Jasmine
- C++ templates allow one to implement a generic Queue<T> template that
has a type parameter T. T can be replaced with actual types, for example,
Queue<Customers>, and C++ will generate the class Queue<Customers>.
For example,
template <class T>
class Stack
{
} ;
Here T is a template parameter, also referred to as type-parameter.
- C++ allows you to specify a default template parameter, so the definition
could now look like:
template <class T = float, int elements = 100> Stack { ....} ;
Then a declaration such as
Stack<> mostRecentSalesFigures ;
would instantiate (at compile time) a 100 element Stack template class named
mostRecentSalesFigures of float values; this template class would be of type
Stack<float, 100>.
Note, C++ also allows non-type template parameters. In this case, template
class Stack has an int as a non-type parameter.
If you specify a default template parameter for any formal parameter, the
rules are the same as for functions and default parameters. Once a default
parameter is declared all subsequent parameters must have defaults.
- Default arguments cannot be specified in a declaration or a definition of a
specialization. For example,
template <class T, int size>
class Stack
{
} ;
//error C2989: 'Stack<int,10>' : template class has already been
//defined as a non-template class
template <class T, int size = 10>
class Stack<int, 10>
{
} ;
int main()
{
Stack<float,10> si ;
return 0 ;
}
- A type-parameter defines its identifier to be a type-name in the scope of
the template declaration, and canot be re-declared within its scope (including
nested scopes). For example,
template <class T, int size>
class Stack
{
int T ; //error type-parameter re-defined.
void f()
{
char T ; //error type-parameter re-defined.
}
} ;
class A {} ;
int main()
{
Stack<A,10> si ;
return 0 ;
}
NOTE: VC++ 5.0 or SP1 compiles this sample without any errors. It does
not flag the re-definition of type-parameter as an error.
- The value of a non-type-parameter cannot be assigned to or have its value
changed. For example,
template <class T, int size>
class Stack
{
void f()
{
//error C2105: '++' needs l-value
size++ ; //error change of template argument value
}
} ;
int main()
{
Stack<double,10> si ;
return 0 ;
}
- A template-parameter that could be interpreted as either a
parameter-declaration or a type-parameter, is taken as a type-parameter. For
example,
class T {} ;
int i ;
template <class T, T i>
void f(T t)
{
T t1 = i ; //template arguments T and i
::T t2 = ::i ; //globals T and i
}
int main()
{
f('s') ; //C2783 here
return 0 ;
}
NOTE: Compiling the above sample using VC++ 5.0 and SP1 causes
compiler error C2783: could not deduce template argument for 'i'. To workaround
the problem, replace the call to f('s') with f<char, 's'>('s').
class T {} ;
int i ;
template <class T, T i>
void f(T t)
{
T t1 = i ; //template arguments T and i
::T t2 = ::i ; //globals T and i
}
int main()
{
f<char, 's'>('s') ; //workaround
return 0 ;
}
- A non-type template parameter cannot be of floating type. For example,
template <double d> class X ; //error C2079: 'xd' uses
//undefined class 'X<1.e66>'
//template <double* pd> class X ; //ok
//template <double& rd> class X ; //ok
int main()
{
X<1.0> xd ;
return 0 ;
}
- Each template class or function generated from a template has its own copies
of any static variables or members.
- Each instantiation of a function template has it's own copy of any static
variables defined within the scope of the function. For example,
template <class T>
class X
{
public:
static T s ;
} ;
int main()
{
X<int> xi ;
X<char*> xc ;
}
Here X<int> has a static data member s of type int and X<char*>
has a static data member s of type char*.
- Static members are defined as follows.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
template <class T>
class X
{
public:
static T s ;
} ;
template <class T> T X<T>::s = 0 ;
template <> int X<int>::s = 3 ;
template <> char* X<char*>::s = "Hello" ;
int main()
{
X<int> xi ;
cout << "xi.s = " << xi.s << endl ;
X<char*> xc ;
cout << "xc.s = " << xc.s << endl ;
return 0 ;
}
Program Output
xi.s = 10
xc.s = Hello
- Each instantiation of a function template has it's own copy of the static
variable. For example,
#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
template <class T>
void f(T t)
{
static T s = 0;
s = t ;
cout << "s = " << s << endl ;
}
int main()
{
f(10) ;
f("Hello") ;
return 0 ;
}
Program Output
s = 10
s = Hello
Here f<int>(int) has a static variable s of type int, and
f<char*>(char*) has a static variable s of type char*.
Friendship can be established between a class template and a global function,
a member function of another class (possibly a template class), or even an
entire class (possible template class). The table below lists the results of
declaring different kinds of friends of a class.
| Class Template |
friend declaration in class template X |
Results of giving friendship |
| template class <T> class X |
friend void f1() ; |
makes f1() a friend of all instantiations of template X. For example, f1()
is a friend of X<int>, X<A>, and X<Y>. |
| template class <T> class X |
friend void f2(X<T>&) ; |
For a particular type T for example, float, makes f2(X<float>&) a
friend of class X<float> only. f2(x<float>&) cannot be a friend
of class X<A>. |
| template class <T> class X |
friend A::f4() ; // A is a user defined class with a member function f4() ;
|
makes A::f4() a friend of all instantiations of template X. For example,
A::f4() is a friend of X<int>, X<A>, and X<Y>. |
| template class <T> class X |
friend C<T>::f5(X<T>&) ; // C is a class template with a
member function f5 |
For a particular type T for example, float, makes
C<float>::f5(X<float>&) a friend of class X<float> only.
C<float>::f5(x<float>&) cannot be a friend of class X<A>.
|
| template class <T> class X |
friend class Y ; |
makes every member function of class Y a friend of every template class
produced from the class template X. |
| template class <T> class X |
friend class Z<T> ; |
when a template class is instantiated with a particular type T, such as a
float, all members of class Z<float> become friends of template class
X<float>. |
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posted @
2010-12-12 00:10 Mr.Johnson 阅读(1160) |
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